SciHawks

AP Chem- worked on a Part II section. We started with a weak acid ionization question: given percent ionization, we could determine the concentration of each species and thus, the pH.
Then, a buffer was made and the new pH was determined.
Then, the relatively rare question that tried to test whether you saw that adding a strong acid to a weak acid DECREASES the percent ionization of the weak acid. We got a bit stuck with the SRFC table because there was nothing to react so we (for the first time ever) tried to get some reaction from the equilibrium concentration of the lactate with the H+. It didn't matter since we could have gone straight to the ICE table starting with NO ionization of the acid (as usual).
We also did a titration question and a gas law question.
Tomorrow, we will start and finish NUCLEAR as well as do Part I AND Part II questions that you can preview tonight. The Part I and Part II HW will be due on Monday.

Bio 6- discussed the two alternate hypotheses on the RATE of evolution: Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium. We noted the strengths and weaknesses of each hypothesis and discussed potential evidence that could strengthen or weaken each hypothesis.

Bio 7/8- we reviewed aspects of the Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution and then discussed the two alternate hypotheses on the RATE of evolution: Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium. We noted the strengths and weaknesses of each hypothesis and discussed potential evidence that could strengthen or weaken each hypothesis.
We finished the natural selection simulation and began a "dichotomous key" classification activity.

AP Chem- Note the NEW sub-section (AP Reference Tables and AP Exam HELP Files) in the Blackboard "Course Documents" section containing inside information and very useful files to assist in your preparation for the AP Chem exam.

Took our final unit exam for the year today! We still will have a nuclear take-home and, of course, an in-class final exam (three-periods, two days) a few days after the 2009 AP Chem exam.
Congratulations all on your accomplishments so far and continued success!
More test review tomorrow: a part II (preview before class so that we can get through the harder questions); then well do Nuclear in one day on Friday along with another part II.

Bio 6/7- discussed the power of Evolutionary Theory in helping you see life/organisms in a new light of understanding. Any organism can be looked at through the prism of evolution in terms of its unique adaptations that were SELECTED FOR by its natural environment over millions of years.

We also discussed two weaknesses of Darwin's Theory of Evolution via natural selection; these weaknesses had to do with Darwin's lack of knowledge due to insufficient knowledge of genetics, DNA, and mutations.
Today we further discussed the modern Theory of Evolution; we saw how evolution in species can be measured/defined as a change in the percentage/frequency of the various alleles in the GENE POOL of a species population. The change in allele frequency is caused by natural selection by the environment for those members of a population whose alleles give them a phenotype that is advantageous to their survival and reproduction in their environment. Thus, the surviving/reproducing members will pass on these advantageous alleles to their offspring, which will have a higher percentage of those alleles in the population.
We then did a lab simulating natural selection that caused the evolution of the peppered moth population.

Bio 8- discussed the power of Evolutionary Theory in helping you see life/organisms in a new light of understanding. Any organism can be looked at through the prism of evolution in terms of its unique adaptations that were SELECTED FOR by its natural environment over millions of years.

We also discussed two weaknesses of Darwin's Theory of Evolution via natural selection; these weaknesses had to do with Darwin's lack of knowledge due to insufficient knowledge of genetics, DNA, and mutations.
Today we further discussed the modern Theory of Evolution; we saw how evolution in species can be measured/defined as a change in the percentage/frequency of the various alleles in the GENE POOL of a species population. The change in allele frequency is caused by natural selection by the environment for those members of a population whose alleles give them a phenotype that is advantageous to their survival and reproduction in their environment. Thus, the surviving/reproducing members will pass on these advantageous alleles to their offspring, which will have a higher percentage of those alleles in the population.

AP Chem- covered your questions on Part I of an actual AP Chem exam. We stressed the importance of MARKING UP the test booklet so that you can SEE your reasoning and more quickly deduce an answer (instead of keeping a myriad of data and reasoning just in your head). We also noted the importance of estimation in deducing an answer without a calculator.
The remaining questions are due for hw on Thursday.
I will also post a Part II for you to preview for Thursday's review class.

Bio 6- We discussed the observations of Charles Darwin that led him to his proposed Theory of Evolution via Natural Selection. We went through his proposed mechanism of speciation of the various finches from the mainland of South America to the various islands of the Galapagos.

Bio 7/8- We discussed the observations of Charles Darwin that led him to his proposed Theory of Evolution via Natural Selection. We went through his proposed mechanism of speciation of the various finches from the mainland of South America to the various islands of the Galapagos.
We did a peppered moth evolution simulation based on the adaptive value of moth color as compared to its environmental background.

AP Chem- Electrochemistry exam is this Wednesday; sorry that I can't stay after school on Tuesday but you can email me that night after 8PM if you have last minute questions.
We focused on the "other" type of electrochemical cell: the ELECTROLYTIC CELL.
We covered the setup and sign conventions for this cell in which non-spontaneous reactions are driven by an external voltage source/battery. Only one cell/container is necessary and no salt bridge is required because the connected battery insures a steady flow of electrons.
We did several quantitative problems involving masses/moles of a metal reduced at the cathode or moles/volume of a gas produced at the anode. We added one other step to these problems by accounting for the efficiency of the battery, which affects the quantity of charge delivered per second.
Other than our one day of "nuclear physics", almost all of our course material has now been completed. We just have a few classic redox equations to learn in descriptive chemistry and a review/practice of some key lab techniques. The rest is all test review and test-taking skills!
Great to see all who are practicing for the SAT II Chem also because that is good review/experience for the Part I of the AP Chem exam.

Bio 6/7- Here's that 60 Minutes video from Sunday's broadcast about elephants- amazing creatures!

Watch CBS Videos Online

Discussed the evolution of penicillin-resistant bacteria and showed that a given antibiotic is a selection agent AGAINST non-resistant strains and FOR resistant strains, which is how antibiotic-resistant bacteria increase in frequency in hospitals/environments in which antibiotics are frequently prescribed or over-prescribed.

We finished the comparative biochemistry lab.

Bio 8- Here's a 60 Minutes video from Sunday's broadcast about elephants- amazing creatures!

Watch CBS Videos Online
Discussed the evolution of penicillin-resistant bacteria and showed that a given antibiotic is a selection agent AGAINST non-resistant strains and FOR resistant strains, which is how antibiotic-resistant bacteria increase in frequency in hospitals/environments in which antibiotics are frequently prescribed or over-prescribed.

On a date to be determined and also on Saturday, May 9th at 8AM in the Sam Springer Gym, the AP Chemistry classes will be offered a complete timed and proctored released exam. The test will then be self-scored immediately thereafter, according to the College Board scoring guide for the exam. These tests are not mandatory for any student but they will give an excellent and accurate indication of your AP score on the May 12th AP Chemistry exam (assuming that the practice exam is not previewed in any way and is taken seriously under test-day conditions).
Past classes have benefited greatly from this "game-day" simulation.
Hope to see you there.

AP Chem-we will complete electrochem on Monday so I will post most of the remaining worksheets/tutorials on Blackboard. Practice each type of these problems; our unit test is on Wednesday.
We began our in-class AP Chem exam review by discussing a weak base ionization followed by the bases titration by HCl (aq).
We then did a quantum atom problem and just began the lab question.
There is a GUARANTEED lab question on each AP Part II. It can be quantitative (with calculator, part II A) or qualitative (no calculator needed, part II B). By the time you take the AP exam, we will have covered all of the necessary lab (and lab ERROR) questions.
Hints for this question: the gas collected in the tube is bubbled through water. ASSUME that the gas is not soluble in the water (otherwise a lot of the gas won't make it through the water but instead will REACT with/hydrolyze the water).
Don't forget that BOTH the unknown gas AND water vapor/gas is in the collection tube.
ASSUME ideal behavior for both gases so that you can use a certain equation in your calculations.
The calculations for this problem were done during the unit on gases/gas laws (HW and notes) so you may want to review what we did.

Bio 6- Continued our explanation of evolution via natural (or sometimes, artificial) selection.
Keep reviewing/re-writing these explanations; this theory is the central/unifying concept of Biology; all other units can be understood/interpreted in terms of the Theory of Evolution i.e. the main/characteristic traits of a given species are adaptations to particular environments.

Bio 7/8- Continued our explanation of evolution via natural (or sometimes, artificial) selection.
Keep reviewing/re-writing these explanations; this theory is the central/unifying concept of Biology; all other units can be understood/interpreted in terms of the Theory of Evolution i.e. the main/characteristic traits of a given species are adaptations to particular environments.
We then did a lab on comparative biochemistry to establish evolutionary relationships (shown via a phylogenetic tree) among several primates.

AP Chem- did examples using standard electrode potentials to determine the spontaneity of a given redox reaction and the K and/or delta G of that reaction under standard conditions.
We then examined the logic of the Nernst Equation for determining the cell potential/voltage under ANY conditions of concentration and/or pressure.
We saw that, relative to standard conditions, when there are greater STARTING concentrations of reactants, a Le Chatelier shift towards the products yields a HIGHER Ecell relative to Ecell-standard. Also, relative to standard conditions, when there are greater STARTING concentrations of products, a Le Chatelier shift towards the reactants yields a LOWER Ecell relative to Ecell-standard.
Ecell values can be predicted QUANTITATIVELY via the Nernst equation and QUALITATIVELY via Le Chatelier's Principle.

Bi0 6/7- we began a series of explanations of evolution within particular species of giraffes, mosquitoes, bacteria, moths, and finches.
These explanations are examples of the Modern Synthetic (Darwin's successfully tested tenets mixed with the Laws and Theories of Genetics and Reproduction) Theory of Evolution applied to specific cases/species.
Practice drawing out/reasoning these mechanisms and you will be able to correctly explain the evolution of ANY species.
We then started a lab on comparative biochemistry.

Bio 8- we began a series of explanations of evolution within particular species of giraffes, mosquitoes, bacteria, moths, and finches.
These explanations are examples of the Modern Synthetic (Darwin's successfully tested tenets mixed with the Laws and Theories of Genetics and Reproduction) Theory of Evolution applied to specific cases/species.
Practice drawing out/reasoning these mechanisms and you will be able to correctly explain the evolution of ANY species.

AP Chem- we did a few electrochemical cell calculations and then we related the cell potential/voltage to the maximum amount of electrical work that could be produced per mole of reaction, that is, we relate E cell to the change in Gibbs Free Energy and also to K, the equilibrium constant. We noted that just a couple of Volts of cell potential translates to an insanely large K value.


Bio 6- Here is the link that I mentioned regarding tracing your genetic ancestry back to various countries as you go back in time: https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/lan/en/atlas.html
Give it a try.
We discussed Lamarck's theory of evolution, which was one of the first scientific explanations of how species/populations changed/evolved. His mechanism of use and disuse and inheritance of acquired traits was ultimately disproved by experiments that showed that traits acquired by parents during their life were not passed on to their offspring (e.g. loss of tails in mice does not get passed on).
We then reviewed Darwin's Theory of Evolution, showing the logic of the mechanism, which was based on decades of observations of nature.

Bio 7/8- Here is the link that I mentioned regarding tracing your genetic ancestry back to various countries as you go back in time:

https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/lan/en/atlas.html
We did some worksheets regarding geological/paleontological evidence for evolution.
We discussed Lamarck's theory of evolution, which was one of the first scientific explanations of how species/populations changed/evolved. His mechanism of use and disuse and inheritance of acquired traits was ultimately disproved by experiments that showed that traits acquired by parents during their life were not passed on to their offspring (e.g. loss of tails in mice does not get passed on).
We then reviewed Darwin's Theory of Evolution, showing the logic of the mechanism, which was based on decades of observations of nature.

AP Chem-discussed the proper labeling of an electrochemical cell and the purpose of each of its components. We learned the proper shorthand notation to represnet an electrochemical cell; the notation begins with the anode and ends with the cathode; phases, concentration, and partial pressures must be included.
We discussed SHE, the standard hydrogen electrode half cell, which is used in conjunction with another half cell to determine the standard electrode potential of that half cell. The voltage assigned to SHE is 0.00 V so all other half cell potentials are measured relative to that of the SHE.
We looked at the overall reaction of an electrochemical cell and made Le Chatelier predictions based on changes in concentration of ions in solution in each half cell; we used these predictions to infer what would happen to the cell voltage/potential under specific non-standard conditions.

Bio 6- we discussed the main sources of evidence for Evolution Theory: comparative embryology, cytology (cells), anatomy, and (most importantly) biochemistry as well as the geologic/fossil record. The powerpoints from that lecture are posted on Blackboard.


Bio 7/8- we discussed the main sources of evidence for Evolution Theory: comparative embryology, cytology (cells), anatomy, and (most importantly) biochemistry as well as the geologic/fossil record. The powerpoints from that lecture are posted on Blackboard.
We then reviewed the modern genetics test.

AP Chem- we discussed the assembly of a Voltaic cell and the mechanism by which it operates. We discussed the meaning of electrode potentials, half-cells, and the conversion of chemical potential energy to electrical energy with minimal loss of waste heat/ energy that cannot be used for work.
Bio - we began our Evolution Unit by defining evolution- the FACT, and Evolution- the modern theory that explains how and why the diversity of organisms that exist today came about.
Sadly, Evolutionary Theory is not presented accurately in the media and is often horrifyingly misunderstood. Already, we have cleared up some misconceptions about the fact of evolution and the Theory of Evolution.
We looked at the various general fields of science that provide evidence that SUPPORTS the Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution: Geology, Cytology (the study of cells of various organisms), Anatomy, Embryology, and MOST importantly, Biochemistry (comparing DNA, RNA, proteins, sugars, and fats).
Starting with Geology, we saw how consecutive layers of sedimentary rock give you a relative time scale of when the fossils were created. Older fossils/older species are found in the older rock layers (near the bottom of the layers) and newer fossils/species are found in the upper layers. To estimate the absolute age of a fossil (more detailed than the relative age), geologists determine the radioactivity of the rocks in the layers, which reveals the ages of the rocks.

One purpose of education is to enhance your ability to follow, understand, and therefore appreciate presentations like this:
http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/bonnie_bassler_on_how_bacteria_communicate.html
You'll likely recognize some of the information from Bio and Chem class in this presentation. Enjoy!

AP Chem-SPRING BREAK ASSIGNMENT: was given out in class and is also posted on Blackboard. This assignment should be completed in THREE, TIMED sessions over your extensive vacation. By the time you do the third exam, the questions should be more familiar and easier to do, if you used your notes, etc. for review/research in doing/reviewing the first two exams.
The assignment is due in class on the Monday of your return from break.
Significant point deductions for late or incomplete assignments. Your 4th quarter grade is almost completely determined by this assignment, the electrochem exam, the nuclear exam, and the final exam.
Also, before and after school that Monday, you may take up to three descriptive chem quizzes (10 minutes each) in order to replace a previous descriptive chem grade.
For those doing the KARMA project (which should be anyone who does not have an UN-CURVED, UN-WEIGHTED, "A" average- why would you NOT take advantage of this opportunity to correct what you didn't know, especially when you are not under a time limit and also when you can improve your final quarter average? Your answer to that question is very telling about you as a student.) EVERY STUDENT (20, so far) who has completed this project has achieved a 5 on the AP Chemistry exam and they have told me that this project had a lot to do with making them acquire the knowledge and confidence to achieve such success.
KARMA guidelines:
The project is worth up to 200 points, depending on the number of questions corrected; it CANNOT hurt your average, though you will not be given credit for the oxymoronic "INCORRECT corrections".
On each test, correctly write the answer, in detail, to whatever question part that you previously erred on (though you may also re-write the whole question, if doing so helps you).
If you have sig. fig. errors throughout your test, just write the RULES for sig figs once and do ONE of the corrections for sig figs on that test.
If you have lost an exam, email me and I'll send you a copy, though you will have to do the whole exam.

We took the Thermodynamics unit exam. Things look okay so far except for those who used delta G standard in order to predict changes in K as temperature changes. There is NO such formula because delta G standard CHANGES with temperature and some were keeping its value constant in the equation that relates delta G standard to K. In class (as seen in the notes) we ALWAYS used Le Chatelier and ONLY considered whether a reaction was endothermic or exothermic in order to predict the influence of increasing temperature on the K of a given reaction. Also, I showed you quantitatively that the Van't Hoff formula can also be used to predict such changes.
We have one main unit left: Electrochemistry/Redox. This unit is MUCH more comprehensive and quantitative in AP Chem than it is in Regents Chem so you may want to skim that chapter. We will cover Nuclear Physics in one day also to be ready for the 3 0r 4 nuclear questions on the AP Chem exam.

Bio - I'll be posting your 3rd quarter lab grades sometime next week. Any missing labs or test MUST be completed on the Monday, before or after school, of your return from vacation. Third-quarter grades will be entered that evening.

introduced the MOST important and central unifying concept of the entirety of Biology:
The Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution. This Theory takes the successfully supported tenets of Darwin's Theory and combines them with successfully tested tenets of Modern Genetics. This far-reaching and powerful theory allows us to make many predictions and explanations about changes within species and speciation, the development of new species; the theory also predicts and explain the extinction of species.

AP Chem- Thermo exam tomorrow counts towards your 3rd quarter average.
Do as many permutations of these problems as you can. As with thermochem, this unit is very mechanical and definition based but it does involve qualitative knowledge i.e. the meanings of the various formulas and the ability to use Le Chatelier.
We did an example that used most of the knowledge learned from this unit. We also saw the interesting connection between the Arrhenius, Clausius-Clayperon, and Van't Hoff Equations that relate the temperature changes to the ratio of rate constants, vapor pressures, and equilibrium constants, respectively. All THREE equations depend on the Boltzmann distribution of particle kinetic energies at various temperatures. We saw that all three equations involve a natural log of the ratio of the dependent variable, an energy term divided by R, the universal gas constant, and the difference between the initial and final inverse Kelvin temperatures.
We still have a day of nuclear physics and a unit on electrochemistry (along with the redox descriptive chem involved) before we end the course material.
The Spring Assignment will be given out tomorrow AND it will be posted on Blackboard.

Bio- took the VERY IMPORTANT modern genetics exam today. This material is heavily tested, along with evolution and ecology, on the Regents exam.
Be sure to have all of this quarter's labs handed in tomorrow so that you don't have a zero for their contribution towards your 3rd quarter grade.
Be sure hand in the labs on:
-Heart Rate
-Making Connections
-Menstrual Cycle Stages
-Meiosis
-Human Inheritance/Pedigree

AP Chem- related the value of the STANDARD free energy change for a reaction to its K, equlibrium constant. BOTH values qualitatively tell you the SAME information. A NEGATIVE standard free energy change INDICATES a K value GREATER THAN ONE i.e. products are favored AT EQUILIBRIUM (when delta G for the reaction (NOT DELTA G STANDARD) or process reaches zero).
We did some qualitative and quantitative comparisons of delta G standard values and their corresponding K values.
We then learned to compute the Gibbs Free Energy change for a reaction STARTING WITH NON-STANDARD concentrations/pressures of the reactants and products, using the RTlnQ equation. TWO important things can be seen from this calculation:
1. whether the reaction will favor products (NEGATIVE delta G) or reactants (POSITIVE delta G) as the reaction goes to equilibrium.
2. the MAXIMUM quantity of USABLE energy to do WORK that can be extracted from this reaction until it reaches equilibrium.
I've posted the answer to AP exam question from this weekend; it has a thermo question relevant to the upcoming test.

Bio 6/7- Study your notes and the posted extra help worksheets tonight.
We discussed the Law of Independent Assortment and the combinations of alleles in the sperm or egg that can be formed as a result. We looked at an exception to this law called GENE LINKAGE, in which two or more genes are "linked"/found on the same chromosome and , barring crossing over between these genes, the genes will be inherited together because they stay together in a given sex cell.
We discussed cloning, the process by which the DNA of a diploid donor nucleus is fused with an egg that has NO nucleus in order to form a diploid cell that can undergo embryonic development. The "clone" that forms is genetically identical to the organism that DONATED its nucleus to the egg and thus will look almost exactly or exactly like the nucleus-donating organism.
We also discussed in-vitro fertilization in which an egg is fertilized by sperm in a nutrient medium in a petri dish instead of "in-vivo" in the oviducts. The embryo formed is then implanted in a uterus that is hormonally prepared for pregnancy i.e. thick with blood vessels/capillaries and ready to embed the embryo.
We discussed cloning, the process by which the DNA of a diploid donor nucleus is fused with an egg that has NO nucleus in order to form a diploid cell that can undergo embryonic development. The "clone" that forms is genetically identical to the organism that DONATED its nucleus to the egg and thus will look almost exactly or exactly like the nucleus-donating organism.

Bio 8- Study your notes and the posted extra help worksheets tonight.
We discussed the Law of Independent Assortment and the combinations of alleles in the sperm or egg that can be formed as a result. We looked at an exception to this law called GENE LINKAGE, in which two or more genes are "linked"/found on the same chromosome and , barring crossing over between these genes, the genes will be inherited together because they stay together in a given sex cell.

AP Chem- discussed our lab activity from yesterday with respect to temperatures at which reactions become spontaneous based on entropy and enthalpy measurements/data.

We then calculated the change in entropy for each of the fusion and vaporization processes for benzene. Typically, enthalpy and entropy data can be used to calculate/predict the normal (1atm) freezing and boiling points of a substance: T = delta H/delta S (of fusion or vaporization, respectively).

We then related the constants for a given reaction or process of delta G STANDARD and Keq. These values will measure the same qualitative information, i.e. whether the products are favored (NEGATIVE delta G standard, K GREATER than 1) or the reactants are favored at equilibrium.

We graphically drew and saw the TREMENDOUS DISTINCTION between delta G and delta G-STANDARD for a given reaction! Delta G is more akin to comparing Q with K, given some INITIAL NON-EQUILIBRIUM mixture of reactants and products. FROM THOSE INITIAL CONDITIONS, a NEGATIVE delta G tells us that products are spontaneously formed/favored, a POSITIVE delta G tells us that REACTANTS are spontaneously favored.
Delta G ALSO tells us the maximum work that can be derived from the process or the minimum work required to cause the reaction.

Bio 6- we discussed ARTIFICIAL SELECTION, the process by which plants or animals with specific desirable traits are SELECTIVELY BRED to each other so that the alleles that code for those traits are passed on to their offspring. After many generations, most of the offspring and parents will typically have those desired traits.
INBREEDING is a type of artificial selection by which "pure-bred" organisms/ homozygous for a given trait can be created by just breeding, for many generations, the offspring that have the same traits. The goal is to have pure-bred organisms that have particular desirable traits. Occasionally, inbreeding leads to the expression of harmful traits, which occurs when heterozygotes mate and form offspring that are homozygous for a harmful recessive allele.
HYBRIDIZATION is the mating of different purebred plants or animals to form heterozygotes that can typically have BOTH of the best traits of their parents, particularly when the alleles that combine are CODOMINANT or incompletely dominant.

We also reviewed, for ASEXUALLY reproducing plants/organisms, a way to amplify the frequency of traits/offspring that are desirable via vegetative propagation: grafting, cutting, or layering. Seedless oranges first formed as a result of a random genetic mutation in the gametes of an orange tree. All seedless oranges since then were formed via grafting branches from that original tree.

Bio 7/8- we discussed the various types of genetic diseases, their causes, and possible treatments.
We discussed modern genetics with respect to genetic manipulation.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION, the process by which plants or animals with specific desirable traits are SELECTIVELY BRED to each other so that the alleles that code for those traits are passed on to their offspring. After many generations, most of the offspring and parents will typically have those desired traits.
INBREEDING is a type of artificial selection by which "pure-bred" organisms/ homozygous for a given trait can be created by just breeding, for many generations, the offspring that have the same traits. The goal is to have pure-bred organisms that have particular desirable traits. Occasionally, inbreeding leads to the expression of harmful traits, which occurs when heterozygotes mate and form offspring that are homozygous for a harmful recessive allele.
HYBRIDIZATION is the mating of different purebred plants or animals to form heterozygotes that can typically have BOTH of the best traits of their parents, particularly when the alleles that combine are CODOMINANT or incompletely dominant.

We also reviewed, for ASEXUALLY reproducing plants/organisms, a way to amplify the frequency of traits/offspring that are desirable via vegetative propagation: grafting, cutting, or layering. Seedless oranges first formed as a result of a random genetic mutation in the gametes of an orange tree. All seedless oranges since then were formed via grafting branches from that original tree.

AP Chem- Make sure that you read/do the tutorials and the practice problems that are on Blackboard.
We did a Thermo Lab in which we collected data on what turned out to be an endothermic reaction. We used our descriptive chem knowledge to predict the products of the reaction and our knowledge of oxidation numbers in order to determine the oxidizing and reducing agents.
Overall, we determined that the reaction involved a positive change in enthalpy (endothermic) and a positive change in entropy. From this, we predicted that the reaction would be favored (spontaneous) at relatively higher temperatures. Using the data, we can predict the temperature at which this ammonia-forming reaction will become spontaneous i.e. at which the forward and reverse reactions are at equilibrium.
We will complete the remaining unit objectives tomorrow; you should do a lot of practice problems tonight and this weekend to prepare for Monday's exam.

Bio 6/7- HW objectives are due tomorrow and will count towards your 3rd quarter grade. Objectives 19, 29,31,33, and 34 will not be graded.
We reviewed genetic mutations and their causes. We illustrated and described four types of chromosomal mutations/alterations: large segments of DNA are sometimes transferred from one chromosome to another nonhomologous chromosome; sometimes a segment of a chromosome is duplicated, inverted, or deleted. Because SEVERAL genes are usually transferred during these chromosomal alterations, the phenotype changes can be extreme or lethal.
We also reviewed common point genetic mutations such as substitution, addition, or deletion of a single nucleotide in the DNA molecule/chromosome. An addition or deletion causes a serious phenotype change because there are THREE nucleotides per codon; so, adding or deleting a SINGLE nucleotide can cause a whole frameshift in how the triplets are transcribed.We then discussed several types of genetic diseases, their symptoms, and some ways to treat/deal with these diseases.
We discussed polygenic inheritance: a trait that is controlled/determine by more than one gene; these genes can even be on different (nonhomologous) chromosomes. The resulting trait typically has a wider/more varied range of phenotypes as is the case with eye color. So, instead of just having a dominant brown allele and a recessive blue allele, there can be more combinations among several different genes, which causes the various possible eye color shades.
We also discussed several examples of ENVIRONMENTAL effect (nurture) on GENE EXPRESSION (an organism's nature): people with the genes for melanin production do not have very dark skin unless they are exposed to sunlight, which turns the gene ON so that transcription and translation of that gene occur.
We then discussed modern genetic engineering up to the definition of biotechnology and examples of selective breeding (in dogs and horses).

Bio 8- HW objectives are due tomorrow and will count towards your 3rd quarter grade. Objectives 19, 29,31,33, and 34 will not be graded.
We reviewed genetic mutations and their causes.
We illustrated and described four types of chromosomal mutations/alterations: large segments of DNA are sometimes transferred from one chromosome to another nonhomologous chromosome; sometimes a segment of a chromosome is duplicated, inverted, or deleted. Because SEVERAL genes are usually transferred during these chromosomal alterations, the phenotype changes can be extreme or lethal.
We also reviewed common point genetic mutations such as substitution, addition, or deletion of a single nucleotide in the DNA molecule/chromosome. An addition or deletion causes a serious phenotype change because there are THREE nucleotides per codon; so, adding or deleting a SINGLE nucleotide can cause a whole frameshift in how the triplets are transcribed.We then discussed several types of genetic diseases, their symptoms, and some ways to treat/deal with these diseases.
We discussed polygenic inheritance: a trait that is controlled/determine by more than one gene; these genes can even be on different (nonhomologous) chromosomes. The resulting trait typically has a wider/more varied range of phenotypes as is the case with eye color. So, instead of just having a dominant brown allele and a recessive blue allele, there can be more combinations among several different genes, which causes the various possible eye color shades.
We also discussed several examples of ENVIRONMENTAL effect (nurture) on GENE EXPRESSION (an organism's nature): people with the genes for melanin production do not have very dark skin unless they are exposed to sunlight, which turns the gene ON so that transcription and translation of that gene occur.
We then discussed two types of genetic diseases, their symptoms, and some ways to treat/deal with these diseases; we will continue with this list.

AP Chem- emphasized the meaning of the little "bubble" that appears next to delta H, G, or S when STANDARD STATES must be kept for the measurement. Therefore, a delta G STANDARD (with the bubble) means that all gaseous reactants and products MUST be maintained/kept at ONE atm pressure.
We saw how to calculate the standard change in FREE ENERGY for a reaction EITHER from standard free energy of FORMATION values, with which we apply a HESS'S LAW type calculation OR, given delta H of formation values AND absolute enthalpy values, we can use Gibbs equation.
We did a delta G reaction calculation and then, ASSUMING that delta H and DELTA S values do not vary much with temperature ( ABSOLUTE ENTROPY, S, CERTAINLY varies GREATLY with temp BUT DELTA S does not!), we calculated the temperature at which a reaction just becomes spontaneous (or nonspontaneous) i.e. the temperature at which the reaction is at EQUILIBRIUM.

Bio 6- did a simulation lab that explains the process of gel electrophoresis: this technique is used to separate a mixture of different size DNA strands that have been cut by restriction enzymes; the technique is also used to separate a mixture of different size polypeptides/proteins.
Here is a link to that genetics site.

Bio 7/8- We discussed the various types of chromosomal mutations and how to use a karyotype in order to spot the result of a nondisjunction mutation that results in a person with one more or one less chromosome.
We then did a simulation lab that explains the process of gel electrophoresis: this technique is used to separate a mixture of different size DNA strands that have been cut by restriction enzymes; the technique is also used to separate a mixture of different size polypeptides/proteins.
Here is a link to that genetics site.