SciHawks

Bio- Outline text Ch. 36-3 is due on Monday. This weekend, I will post answers to the class worksheets from last week; I'll also post some review/summary notes and a PowerPoint.
We discussed the difference between physical addiction and psychological addiction: withdrawal from physical addiction makes a person physically ill whereas withdrawal from psychological addiction does not make a person physically ill. We noted that the psychological "feeling" that a person needs a particular drug is caused by electrochemical impulses between neurons (which cause ALL feelings).
We discussed drug tolerance, which can be caused by the saturation of the neuron receptors BY the frequently used drug. We also talked about withdrawal from and treatment for addiction.
We then began some review for Tuesday's exam on the nervous system and we discussed the reflex arc lab.

Chem 7- we did some more gas density at STP to molar mass (and vice-versa) problems. We then began our review for Tuesday's exam by doing a percent water in a hydrate problem from raw lab data. This weekend, I will post answers to most of the worksheets and review packet problems.

Chem 8/9- we did some more gas density at STP to molar mass (and vice-versa) problems.
We then discussed the "percent water in a hydrate lab", which we will finish on Tuesday. This weekend, I will post answers to most of the worksheets and review packet problems.

Bio- due Monday, outline text section 36.3
We discussed the mechanism by which drugs affect the central nervous system.
Drugs affect the body by either increasing or decreasing the secretion or absorption of neurotransmitters between neurons. Stimulants increase neurotransmitter secretion or absorption and depressants/sedative decrease neurotransmitter secretion or absorption.
We listed several stimulants: amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine.
Hallucinogens stimulate the cerebral neurons to create hallucinations or altered perceptions.
Narcotics (such as heroin, codeine, and morphine), barbiturates, and alcohol depress the central nervous system and can numb or reduce pain.

Chem 7/8- The unit hw is due tomorrow, Friday.
After our well-executed organic production, we continued doing more % composition to empirical formula to molecular formula problems. We noted that, as a check on our work, the "scaling factor" will always turn out to be a WHOLE NUMBER. If it is not, then there MUST be an error in the empirical formula (or a misprint in the question, perhaps) so you should go back and retry the empirical formula calculation.
We then returned to the mole triangle to see how, at STP, you can determine the molecular mass of a gas from its density (and vice-versa).
To get the STP gas density for a given particular gas, just calculate its molar mass (formula mass) and divide that by 22.4 liters per mole. That's it!
To get the molar mass (formula mass) of a gas from its density at STP, just MULTIPLY the density (in grams per liter) by 22.4 liters per mole. That's it!.


Chem 9- The unit hw is due tomorrow, Friday.
We continued doing more % composition to empirical formula to molecular formula problems. We noted that, as a check on our work, the "scaling factor" will always turn out to be a WHOLE NUMBER. If it is not, then there MUST be an error in the empirical formula (or a misprint in the question, perhaps) so you should go back and retry the empirical formula calculation.
We then returned to the mole triangle to see how, at STP, you can determine the molecular mass of a gas from its density (and vice-versa).
To get the STP gas density for a given particular gas, just calculate its molar mass (formula mass) and divide that by 22.4 liters per mole. That's it!
To get the molar mass (formula mass) of a gas from its density at STP, just MULTIPLY the density (in grams per liter) by 22.4 liters per mole. That's it!.

Bio- we continued with the diseases/disorders of the nervous system, discussing polio, epilepsy, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's.
Since these are diseases of the nervous system, most of them result in some sort of muscular paralysis, lack of coordination, or memory/reasoning loss.
We then started a worksheet on the CNS and ended with a lab on reflex times with and without distractions. Consciously controlled voluntary reflexes may be slowed if your brain/CNS is "multi-tasking"/processing other stimuli.

Chem 7- we did a few more permutations of "percent water in a hydrate" problems. Then, we further developed the skill of taking a compound's percent composition, converting/calculating the empirical formula of the compound from that information, and using the empirical formula mass along with the given molecular mass to determine the molecular formula of the compound. The required information to get the molecular formula from the empirical formula is the molecular mass of the compound. Dividing the molecular mass by the empirical formula mass gets you (ALWAYS) a whole number, which is the "SCALING FACTOR". Just multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula by the scaling factor and you will get the correct molecular formula of the compound. This process is not necessary for salts because ALL salt/ionic compound formulas are/must be empirical formulas (i.e. the lowest whole-number ratio of the cations to the anions in the lattice).

Chem 8/9- we determined the "percent water in a hydrate" by taking a one mole sample of the hydrated salt, getting its formula mass, and dividing the mass due to the water by the whole hydrate formula mass (x 100%).
Then, we further developed the skill of taking a compound's percent composition, converting/calculating the empirical formula of the compound from that information, and using the empirical formula mass along with the given molecular mass to determine the molecular formula of the compound. The required information to get the molecular formula from the empirical formula is the molecular mass of the compound. Dividing the molecular mass by the empirical formula mass gets you (ALWAYS) a whole number, which is the "SCALING FACTOR". Just multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula by the scaling factor and you will get the correct molecular formula of the compound. This process is not necessary for salts because ALL salt/ionic compound formulas are/must be empirical formulas (i.e. the lowest whole-number ratio of the cations to the anions in the lattice).
We then did a lab, making magnesium oxide salt from magnesium metal and oxygen from the air. With this data, we will determine the empirical formula of this salt.

Bio- we contrasted the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system responses, which are both autonomic (remember "automatic") responses. Sympathetic nervous responses involve electrochemical signals from neurons to glands; the glands are then stimulated to secrete hormones that cause a "fight or flight" response. Parasympathetic nervous responses also involve electrochemical signals from neurons to the same glands; the glands are then stimulated by different/parasympathetic neurotransmitters to secrete hormones that cause a "rest or digest"/ calming response.
We discussed a few disorders/diseases of the nervous system:
- cerebral palsy occurs during fetal development; certain brain cells die for a variety of reasons, which causes the person to have abnormal or insufficient nerve impulses to muscle, which make the person move in an uncoordinated manner. A possible future treatment for this currently untreatable condition that does not change significantly throughout a person's life is to use stem cells to form new neurons and new neuron to muscle reflex arcs.
-meningitis is caused by viruses or bacteria; the immune response to these pathogens inflames/swells the tissues, the meninges, that cover the spinal cord and brain. Treatment with antiviral medicines or antibiotics for bacterial infection may cure the disease. Vaccination may help to prevent infection that causes meningitis.

Chem 7/8- we discussed the components of a hydrate, which is a lattice of ions that contain a set number of water molecules in the lattice per formula unit of the ions. The water molecules are attracted to the ions via ion-dipole attractions, which are not bonds so mild heating can cause the water to vaporize/sublime from the lattice thus forming an "anhydrous" (no water left) salt.
Then, we calculated the percent composition of water in a hydrated salt.
We also determined how to calculate the EMPIRICAL FORMULA (the lowest whole number ratio of atoms or ions of each element in a compound) of a compound FROM the percent composition of elements in the compound. This procedure works due to Dalton's Law of Constant Composition; that is, a given compound has a constant/fixed/set ratio of atoms or ions of each element, therefore a given compound has a constant/fixed/set percent composition by mass based on its ratio of atoms or ions of each element. We saw that sometimes you may have to multiply the mole ratios of the elements in your compounds in order for the compound to have whole number subscripts.
We performed a lab in which we dehydrated a hydrated salt via heating in a crucible. We will use the data to determine the percent composition of water in that hydrate.

Chem 9- We determined how to calculate the EMPIRICAL FORMULA (the lowest whole number ratio of atoms or ions of each element in a compound) of a compound FROM the percent composition of elements in the compound. This procedure works due to Dalton's Law of Constant Composition; that is, a given compound has a constant/fixed/set ratio of atoms or ions of each element, therefore a given compound has a constant/fixed/set percent composition by mass based on its ratio of atoms or ions of each element. We saw that sometimes you may have to multiply the mole ratios of the elements in your compounds in order for the compound to have whole number subscripts.

Bio- welcome back! Today we reviewed the parts of the CNS, the brain and spinal cord, and described the function of each part.
We noted that the cerebrum processes the stimuli received from each of the senses. Also, due to its highly concentrated and branched network of neurons, each of which synapses with thousands of other neurons, the cerebrum performs all of your thinking, memory, and imagination/dreaming.
The PNS, peripheral nervous system, involves all neurons beyond the CNS; the PNS reaches all organs and glands of the body- it reaches the "periphery", the outer surface of your body.
The CNS and the PNS are classified based upon their LOCATION; another way to classify the parts of the nervous system uses the maintenance of homeostasis in response to the type of environment:
The SOMATIC nervous system regulates the body by causing changes in the EXTERNAL environment via mostly voluntary nerve impulses sent to muscles. The AUTONOMIC nervous system regulates the body by causing changes in the INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT via involuntary/automatic nerve impulses to target organs/glands.
We further subdivide the AUTONOMIC nervous system into two opposite responses:
sympathetic nerve impulses and PARAsympathetic nerve impulses. SYMPATHETIC nerve impulses are involuntary impulses sent to glands that cause adrenalin, epinephrine, etc. to be secreted, which creates a "fight or flight" response. PARASYMPATHETIC nerve impulses are sent to the same glands that are targeted by the sympathetic pathway BUT parasympathetic impulses cause the secretion of hormones that create a calming down or "rest and digest/relax" response.
Chem 7- we reviewed the method for determining the percent composition (by mass) of each element in a compound. We then applied this method in determining the number of grams of a particular element that could be extracted from a given size sample of a compound.
We began to discuss the relationship between percent composition and empirical formula of a compound.

Chem 8/9: we reviewed the method for determining the percent composition (by mass) of each element in a compound. We then applied this method in determining the number of grams of a particular element that could be extracted from a given size sample of a compound.
We then discussed the relationship between percent composition and empirical formula of a compound. We showed the three to four-step method for determining the empirical formula of a compound from the percent composition by first taking a 100 gram sample of the compound.

We then did a lab in which we collected data in order to determine the percent composition of water in a hydrated salt.

Bio- we continued our discussion of the nervous system. We can separate the nervous system into two main sections: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. We first are focusing on the central nervous system organs: the brain and the spinal cord. We discussed the structures and functions of the main parts of the brain: the cerebrum (thinking, memory, processing information from the five senses), the cerebellum (balance and coordination), and the medulla oblongata (involuntary control of breathing rate).
We saw a brief video of the central nervous system that showed a REFLEX ARC, which is a series of nerve impulses starting with a stimulus to the RECEPTORS on the sensory neurons, which relay impulses to the interneurons, which then relay impulses to motor neurons, which then cause contractions in muscles or secretions in glands. Glands and muscles are the EFFECTORS of the reflex arc.
On Blackboard this week, check your answers to the worksheets given out in class on Friday.

Chem 7/8- we finished the various "mole triangle" calculations involving inter-conversions from grams to moles to particles to moles to liters (at STP). We showed the importance of writing out the units AND the substances in ALL calculations so that you can keep track of what you are actually doing.
We then did some "percent composition" calculations. Percent composition means the percent composition BY MASS of a particular element in a compound. That is, if you take a mole of a compound, say H2O, and decompose it into its elements, H and O, you would always get the same ratio or percent of the masses of its elements; to see this, take ONE MOLE of the compound, e.g. one mole of H2O and get its mass; the formula (molecular) mass of H2O is 18.0 grams (per mole) and 2.0 of those 18.0 grams comes from the H and 16.0 of those 18.0 grams comes from O. Therefore, 2.0/18.0 is the (mass) fraction of H in water and that fraction can be converted to a percent by multiplying the fraction by 100 and putting a % symbol after the number calculated; so, water is 11.1% H and 16.0/18.o O, which is 88.9% O.

Chem 9- we finished the various "mole triangle" calculations involving inter-conversions from grams to moles to particles to moles to liters (at STP). We showed the importance of writing out the units AND the substances in ALL calculations so that you can keep track of what you are actually doing.
We then did some "percent composition" calculations. Percent composition means the percent composition BY MASS of a particular element in a compound. That is, if you take a mole of a compound, say H2O, and decompose it into its elements, H and O, you would always get the same ratio or percent of the masses of its elements; to see this, take ONE MOLE of the compound, e.g. one mole of H2O and get its mass; the formula (molecular) mass of H2O is 18.0 grams (per mole) and 2.0 of those 18.0 grams comes from the H and 16.0 of those 18.0 grams comes from O. Therefore, 2.0/18.0 is the (mass) fraction of H in water and that fraction can be converted to a percent by multiplying the fraction by 100 and putting a % symbol after the number calculated; so, water is 11.1% H and 16.0/18.o O, which is 88.9% O.

Bio- HW due Friday: Outline text section 36.1
We discussed nerve impulse transmission; a sensory neuron will detect a stimulus, which causes an electrical impulse to travel from its dendrites to its long, thin, myelin sheath-coated part and then to its axon where the impulse causes the secretion of neurotransmitters; these neurotransmitter chemicals are then absorbed by the next adjacent neuron and the impulse continues.
Overall, a REFLEX ARC consists of electrochemical impulses that travel from the receptors of the SENSORY NEURONS to the INTERNEURONS to the MOTOR NEURONS which finally cause the EFFECTORS to react. An effector is a MUSCLE, which will contract, or a GLAND, which will then secrete a hormone.
We then began our discussion of the first of two main sections of the nervous system: the CENTRAL nervous system, which consists of the BRAIN and the SPINAL CORD. The spinal cord is surrounded by and protected by the vertebrae. We will continue this discussion tomorrow.

We then finished our discussion of the Epidemic lab. We also discussed the difference between scientific evidence and anecdotal evidence.

Chem 7- we continued with the "magic triangle" calculations of moles to grams and grams to moles. We then derived and did examples of the other two triangle vertices: liters of gas at STP to moles and vice-versa and then moles to # of particles and vice-versa.
We also did a couple of calculation from grams to moles to molecules; these two-step problems always involve calculating moles from either grams, liters, or # of particles and then calculating from moles to one of the three vertices: grams, liters, or # of particles.

Chem 8/9- we continued with the "magic triangle" calculations of moles to grams and grams to moles. We then derived and did examples of the other two triangle vertices: liters of gas at STP to moles and vice-versa and then moles to # of particles and vice-versa.
We also did a couple of calculation from grams to moles to molecules; these two-step problems always involve calculating moles from either grams, liters, or # of particles and then calculating from moles to one of the three vertices: grams, liters, or # of particles.

We then did a worksheet with which we practices the magic triangle calculations on common substances.

Bio- HW: due Friday, outline Section 36.1
we began our new unit: The Human Nervous System.
We compared and contrasted the two systems responsible for the life process of REGULATION (maintaining homeostasis): the nervous and endocrine systems.
We saw that the nervous system, via electrochemical IMPULSES between NEURONS, causes rapid bodily responses (pupil dilation, muscle contraction) in response to STIMULI (light, heat, moisture, threats). The endocrine, on the other hand, by secreting hormones, which are then circulated by the bloodstream to their specific target cells, causes slower, longer-lasting effects on the body.
We then looked at the structures and functions of nerve cells.

Chem 7/8- we began our new unit on the Math of Chemistry, specifically, the "mole" concept.
We began working with the "magic triangle", a tried and true method that most chemistry teachers have used successfully for decades.
To convert moles of a substance to its mass in grams, multiply the number of moles by the FORMULA MASS. We practiced calculating formula masses of atoms, molecules, and ionic compounds.
We then discussed our ester lab by showing the reactions involved, the structural formulas, and the names of the reactants and products.

Chem 9- we began our new unit on the Math of Chemistry, specifically, the "mole" concept.
We began working with the "magic triangle", a tried and true method that most chemistry teachers have used successfully for decades.
To convert moles of a substance to its mass in grams, multiply the number of moles by the FORMULA MASS. We practiced calculating formula masses of atoms, molecules, and ionic compounds.

Bio- we took our test on the immune system and then we continued to collect data on our spread of disease lab. We will tally the data and discuss that lab on Thursday.
Our next unit is the Nervous System, which consists of the brain, the spinal cord, and the various neurons (nerve cells) throughout your body. The nervous system rapidly senses internal and external stimuli so that it can perform the life function of REGULATION via chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

Chem 7- we took our Organic Chem exam; tomorrow we begin our new unit on the Math of Chemistry; the math used in the unit is limited to ratios/proportions and two step algebra problems that have ONE variable (x).

Chem 8/9: we took our Organic Chem exam.
Then we discussed our ester synthesis lab, reviewing the esterification process and naming the two esters that we synthesized.
Tomorrow we begin our new unit on the Math of Chemistry; the math used in the unit is limited to ratios/proportions and two step algebra problems that have ONE variable (x).

Bio- we reviewed some of the major objectives for Tuesday's exam on the immune system. We also practiced test skills involving predicting the answer of a multiple choice question BEFORE you even look at the answer choices; we also practiced ILLUSTRATING an answer to accompany a description; drawing an answer is significantly easier than putting the words into a long-winded explanation.

Chem 7/8 - we went through a review of most of the question types on Tuesday's organic chemistry exam. Drawing out your answers before you look at the choices is extremely important on this exam, in particular. Use your reference tables as a double check on any names, structural formulas, or functional groups.

Chem 9- we went through a review of some of the question types on Tuesday's organic chemistry exam. Drawing out your answers before you look at the choices is extremely important on this exam, in particular. Use your reference tables as a double check on any names, structural formulas, or functional groups.

Bio- HW: the rest of the section 39.2 outline was due on Friday.
Bring the hw in by Monday, if you forgot it today.
We finished our Immune System unit by discussing LEUKEMIA, which occurs when white blood cells divide uncontrollably due to some environmentally caused or genetically caused abnormality in these cells. These abnormal white blood cells do not help your immune system but instead cause the depletion of nutrients and energy from your body.
We then looked at the lymphatic system, which is a network of white blood cell and lymph-fluid carrying vessels as well as the lymph "filters" called lymph nodes. The lymph nodes filter bacteria and used up lymphocytes (white blood cells); so, when you are actively fighting a pathogenic infection, your lymph nodes will swell with the filtered dead pathogens.
The lymphatic system has non-immune functions also such as maintaining plasma fluid balance in the blood and absorbing digested fatty acids from the small intestines via lacteals.

We then did a lab simulation in which we saw how quickly an infection could spread through a community of individuals who have no innate or acquired immunity (via vaccination). Here is the video that we saw before the lab:
http://www.immunisation.nhs.uk/About_Immunisation/Science/How_immunisation_works_-_animation

I will post all of the worksheet answers and some of the objective answers. Check Blackboard by Sunday.

Chem 7- I changed a few molecules from this week's lab activity in order to discount the molecules that are not on the Regents exam. I've posted the revised file and the answer key on Blackboard so that you can check your work from this week.
we finished the organic chem reaction types, describing and drawing out alcoholic fermentation; this process requires specific enzyme catalysts which speed up the conversion of glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
We then revisited esterification by showing how to determine, from just the condensed structural formula, the alcohol and organic acid that forms a given ester. Just chop the formula AFTER the COO such that it is on one side of your division. For example, CH3COOCH2CH2CH3 is split into CH3COO and CH2CH2CH3 which shows that ethanoic acid and 1-propanol was used to make the ester, propyl ethanoate.
We described and explained the physical properties (boiling points, electrical conductivity) of organic molecules and found that most molecules have relatively low boiling points (compared to salts or metals) due to the weak induced dipole attractions among most hydrocarbons. We saw that organic molecules that have C-O bonds have slightly higher boiling points due to dipole-dipole attractions between the molecules. Alcohols and carboxylic acids have even higher boiling points due to the "hydrogen bonding" attractions between the molecules, which occur due to the extremely polar O-H covalent bonds within each molecule.

Chem 8/9- I changed a few molecules from this week's lab activity in order to discount the molecules that are not on the Regents exam. I've posted the revised file and the answer key on Blackboard so that you can check your work from this week.
we finished the organic chem reaction types, describing and drawing polymerization, saponification and alcoholic fermentation; fermentation requires specific enzyme catalysts which speed up the conversion of glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
We then revisited esterification by showing how to determine, from just the condensed structural formula, the alcohol and organic acid that forms a given ester. Just chop the formula AFTER the COO such that it is on one side of your division. For example, CH3COOCH2CH2CH3 is split into CH3COO and CH2CH2CH3 which shows that ethanoic acid and 1-propanol was used to make the ester, propyl ethanoate.
We described and explained the physical properties (boiling points, electrical conductivity) of organic molecules and found that most molecules have relatively low boiling points (compared to salts or metals) due to the weak induced dipole attractions among most hydrocarbons. We saw that organic molecules that have C-O bonds have slightly higher boiling points due to dipole-dipole attractions between the molecules. Alcohols and carboxylic acids have even higher boiling points due to the "hydrogen bonding" attractions between the molecules, which occur due to the extremely polar O-H covalent bonds within each molecule.

Bio- we discussed AUTOIMMUNE diseases, which occur when your immune system attacks your own body cells because the white blood cells cannot distinguish between self and "non-self" antigens on cell surfaces. The failure to maintain homeostasis is a severe malfunction of the human immune system, which operates based on its ability to distinguish between human cells and pathogens, can result in death or organ failure depending on the strength of the attack by the immune system.
We also discussed the HIV virus and how it attacks/binds to helper T-cells of the immune system thus decreasing the immune system's ability to fight off other pathogens. An HIV infection may ultimately cause such a weakened immune system that a person won't be able to fight off other infections (opportunistic infections) and die not from the HIV virus but from the other infection (pneumonia, flu, cancer).
We discussed the general difficulty in developing vaccines against viruses that rapidly mutate into new strains (their DNA or RNA replicates with lots of "errors"). That is why a different flu vaccine is synthesized for each new flu season.

Chem 7/8: we discussed and went over specific examples of each major type of ORGANIC chemical reaction. We reviewed substitution, addition, combustion, polymerization, and saponification. We have already done esterification so you now have seen all of the major organic reactions.
We then did a lab activity in which you used your knowledge of organic functional groups and names.

Chem 9: we looked at three of the six major organic reaction types and focused on the features and the differences among these reactions.
Look at the worksheets and tutorials on Blackboard for additional practice with these reaction types.

Bio- HW: due Friday, outline the remaining parts of Section 39.2
we continued our discussion of the two different ways to get/ACQUIRE immunity: ACTIVE immunity and PASSIVE immunity. We focused on getting active immunity via vaccination. Ultimately, a vaccine works by causing the production of memory cells that can make antibodies that are SPECIFIC to the particular microbe/antigens that are contained in the vaccine. Vaccines do involve some health risks but these risks can be lessened by making the vaccine from dead microbes or just parts of the membrane or protein coat of the microbe that contain a protein-antigen.
We discussed PASSIVE immunity, which gives a person TEMPORARY/short-lived immunity to a given pathogen via the injection or ingestion of antibodies (from another person or organism)that specifically bind to the given pathogen. The three common examples of passive immunity are:
1. transfer of antibodies from mother's blood plasma to her baby's blood plasma via the placenta; the mother makes the antibodies, gets them to the baby, who will have temporary immunity until those antibodies are broken down within a few months
2. ingestion of antibodies contained in breast milk as an infant nurses.
3. injection of antibodies (this is NOT a VACCINE!) that were made in one organism into the blood of another organism.

We started to discuss the failures to maintain homeostasis of the immune system:
allergies, cancer, and AIDS are the most important maladies of the immune system.

Chem 7- we continued with functional groups, focusing on amines and amides.
Amine names end in "amine" and amide names end in "amide". The rest of the name is based on the number of carbons in the chain attached to the N.
We then looked at the benzene and then looked at derivatives of benzene/phenyl rings; most complex biological molecules (vitamins, hormones, neurotransmitters)consist of a skeleton of benzene-like phenyl rings that have various functional groups attached.
We then looked at two of the six major organic chemical reactions: substitution and addition. It is important and not difficult to SEE the difference between a substitution and an addition reaction. It is important to draw the reactant molecules so that you can see what bonds are broken and what bonds form.

Chem 8/9- we finished our discussion of aldehydes and ketones by comparing and contrasting them. Aldehydes and ketones can easily be isomers of each other: just take any ketone and move the C=O (carbonyl) group to the END of the molecule and you will have an ALDEHYDE with the same chemical formula as the ketone.
We continued with functional groups, focusing on amines and amides.
Amine names end in "amine" and amide names end in "amide". The rest of the name is based on the number of carbons in the chain attached to the N.
We then looked at the benzene and then looked at derivatives of benzene/phenyl rings; most complex biological molecules (vitamins, hormones, neurotransmitters)consist of a skeleton of benzene-like phenyl rings that have various functional groups attached.

We then did a lab activity in which you drew, named, and identified various organic molecules. We will continue this activity on Friday.

Bio- we reviewed the A,B,AB, and O blood groups according to antigens present on the surface of the red blood cells; we also reviewed the Rh blood antigen. We explained in detail why only the ANTIGENS on the DONATED blood cells need to be considered when determining a suitable donor for a given patient. The patient has the main source of antibodies, if any, which can be made in great numbers, whereas the donated blood cannot make more antibodies and there are relatively few antibodies in donated blood anyway; so, for simplicity and to avoid confusion, we will ASSUME that DONATED blood has NO antibodies present (the antibodies CAN be filtered out of the plasma).
We then discussed vaccines, what they are made of, what immune reaction they cause in the body, and how they help to cause long-term immunity against a specific pathogen for each specific vaccine.


Art by Michael from 7th:

Chem 7/8- we continued our arduous work with esters, carboxylic acids, and alcohols; we also reviewed the previous types of organic compounds studied, focusing on their CONDENSED structural formulas.
We then looked at organic bases, amines. AmiNes are nitrogen containing compounds that have either one, two, or three alkyl groups bonded to the N atom.
We will only have to name PRIMARY amines. For example, CH3CH2NH2 is called ethanamine.
We then looked at AMIDES, which are formed from the reaction (dehydration synthesis) of a carboxylic acid with an amine to form an amide and water.
We then made a couple of different esters via an acid catalyzed reaction of an alcohol with an organic acid. We noted the fragrance of each ester formed; esters are known for their often fruity fragrances.

Chem 9- we continued our arduous work with esters, carboxylic acids, and alcohols; we also reviewed the previous types of organic compounds studied, focusing on their CONDENSED structural formulas.
We continued to distinguish and name various types of organic compounds based on their respective functional groups. We looked at aldehydes (CHO mama is an aldehyde!), and ketones. ALdehydes end in "al", and ketONEs end in "one".

Bio- HW: Section 39.2 is VERY long so I am splitting it into two subsections.
Due Wednesday: Outline 39.2 UP TO AND INCLUDING the subsection on "ACQUIRED IMMUNITY".
Today, we discussed and explained the scientific reasoning behind Koch's Postulates that help scientists to identify the specific pathogen that causes a particular infectious disease.

We then discussed the antigen-basis of the A, B, AB, and O blood groups and the antibodies that are found in the plasma of each blood group. The blood groups are named according to the protein/antigen that is literally embedded on the surface of each red blood cell membrane. Thus, Type A blood has "A" antigens all over the surface of each red blood cell;
Type B blood has "B" antigens all over the surface of each red blood cell;
Type AB blood has BOTH "A" and "B" antigens all over the surface of each red blood cell;
Type O blood has NEITHER "A" nor "B" antigens on the surface of each red blood cell.

Each blood group also has antibodies in the blood plasma that will bind to and clump/agglutinate any antigens that are not naturally present in the blood. Therefore,
Type A blood has anti-B antibodies, so a person with Type A blood cannot get a transfusion from a person who has Type AB or Type B blood.
Type B blood has anti-A antibodies, so a person with Type B blood cannot get a transfusion from a person with Type AB or Type A blood.
Type O blood has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, so a person with Type O blood cannot get a transfusion from a person with Type AB, Type A, or Type B blood!
Type AB blood has NEITHER anti-A nor anti-B antibodies, so a person with Type AB blood CAN get a transfusion from ANY blood group.

In addition to the A and B antigens, there is a Rhesus antigen. Those with an Rh antigen on the surface of each of their red blood cells are Rh +; those without the Rh antigen are Rh -.
A person that is Rh - will develop antibodies if she is exposed to blood that is Rh + ; subsequent exposure to Rh + blood will trigger a rapid and possibly fatal blood clotting reaction.

Chem 7- we discussed the structure and naming of carboxylic acids and esters.
Esters require even more practice than the other organic molecules; I'll put up a tutorial later.
We saw that esters are made from the reaction of an organic acid with an alcohol to produce the ester AND water. The H from the acid bonds to the OH from the alcohol to form water; the rest of the two molecule bond at the O of the acid to the C of the alcohol to from the ester.

Chem 8/9- we discussed the structure and naming of alcohols and ethers; then, we did carboxylic acids and esters.
Alcohols and ethers can form isomers of each other; just take one of the "R" groups from the ether and put it at the other end of the molecule and replace the "R" group with an H. This way, you'll get an alcohol with the same molecular formula BUT a different STRUCTURAL formula than the ether.
Esters require even more practice than the other organic molecules; I'll put up a tutorial later.
We saw that esters are made from the reaction of an organic acid with an alcohol to produce the ester AND water. The H from the acid bonds to the OH from the alcohol to form water; the rest of the two molecule bond at the O of the acid to the C of the alcohol to from the ester.

I've posted some "step-by-step" tutorials on each type/category/series of organic molecule that we have covered so far (or will have covered by Monday). These tutorials have built-in "learning checks"; you'll find them informative and helpful.
I also posted a "Naming and Structural Formula" Worksheet with an answer key at the end.

Bio- HW: Outline Text 39.1 is due on Monday. That section is rather long so begin it on Friday and finish up by classtime on Monday.
We further developed our discussion of cell-based immunity vs. antibody based immunity; both of these forms of immunity work simultaneously to attack/combat against a SPECIFIC pathogen.
This SPECIFIC attack begins with the macrophages that are able to take the ANTIGEN-proteins that are UNIQUE to each pathogen and then copy/display them on the macrophage surface. "Helper" T-Cells, a type of white blood cell, then bind to the macrophage so that those SPECIFIC antigen-proteins are recognized by both KILLER-T cells and by B cells. The killer T-cells directly bind to and destroy any pathogen that has the specific-shaped protein antigen that was displayed on the macrophage; the B cells will SYNTHESIZE hundreds of THOUSANDS of complementary-SHAPED proteins called ANTIBODIES, which will bind to/tie up/mark for death any pathogen with the antigen that fits with those complementary antibodies.

We then began to discuss Koch's Postulates, which is an example of a proper scientific investigation, to determine the specific pathogen that causes a specific disease.

Chem 7/8- we continued to distinguish and name various types of organic compounds based on their respective functional groups. We looked at alCOHols, ethers (etheR-O-R), aldehydes (CHO mama is an aldehyde!), and ketones. All alcohols end in "ol", ethers commonly end in ether (though the IUPAC name will be discussed later), ALdehydes end in "al", and ketONEs end in "one".
As we discussed each type of compound, we noted the type of intermolecular attractions for each molecule and the corresponding physical properties (boiling point) that results from the particular IMFA.
We then practiced drawing isomers for the following pairs of organic molecules:
alcohols and ethers
aldehydes and ketones
As you saw, a little rearrangement of atoms easily converts one type of compound into the other type, though they each have the same overall molecular formula.

Chem 9- We looked at one of several different types of organic molecules that can be recognized based on its FUNCTIONAL GROUP: alCOHols, which all have a hydroxy (OH) functional group covalently bonded to the carbon chain.
We saw that each alcohol has the suffix "ol" in its name. The rest of the name is generally determined by taking the first two syllables of its "alkane"carbon-skeleton name. So, a two carbon alcohol is called ETHANol.
We defined primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols and then we discussed monohydroxy (ONE OH per molecule), DIhydroxy (TWO OH groups per molecule), and TRIhydroxy (THREE OH groups per molecule) alcohols. DO NOT CONFUSE dihydroxy alcohols with SECONDARY alcohols! Secondary alcohols are ALWAYS monohydroxy alcohols that have the OH group on a SECONDARY carbon, i.e. a carbon that is bonded to TWO other carbons.